TCP/IP Model

The TCP/IP model is a more practical, implementation-focused framework used in modern internet communications. It consolidates the OSI model’s seven layers into four functional layers:

Application Layer (Combines OSI Layers 5-7)

Handles high-level protocols, user interfaces, and data formatting. This layer encompasses all application-level protocols and services.

Transport Layer (OSI Layer 4)

Manages end-to-end communication using TCP for reliable transmission and UDP for faster, connectionless communication.

Internet Layer (OSI Layer 3)

Handles routing and addressing using IP protocols, enabling data to traverse multiple networks.

Network Access Layer (Combines OSI Layers 1-2)

Manages physical transmission and hardware addressing, combining physical and data link functions.